68 min read

Published on

December 14, 2023

5 Innovative Alternative High Protein Sources Revealed

Discover the world of alternative high protein sources, offering nutritious and sustainable options for your diet. Dive into this exciting and healthy food journey.

Xam Richie

In a world where sustainability and nutrition are paramount, exploring alternative high protein sources is more important than ever.

This article unveils five innovative options that are not only rich in protein but also echo the principles of environmental friendliness and dietary diversity.

From plant-based proteins and protein-rich legumes to the less conventional insect-based proteins and mycoproteins from fungi, each source offers unique nutritional benefits.

We also delve into the potential of aquatic plant proteins and microalgae, redefining what it means to consume protein responsibly.

These eco-friendly protein choices are not just about meeting dietary needs; they're about shaping a sustainable future for our planet.

Keywords: Alternative High Protein Sources, Sustainable Protein Options, Plant-Based Proteins, Insect-Based Protein, Protein-Rich Legumes

alternative high prtein sources — **PlantFusion Complete Vegan Protein Powerhouse**

Main Findings

The need for new, sustainable, and natural protein resources has arisen due to the increasing population and limited availability of high-quality protein sources, leading to the exploration of options such as insects, underutilized legume crops, weeds, and fungi.
Insect proteins are a valuable source of nutrition due to their abundance of essential amino acids, essential fatty acids, and trace elements.
Unconventional legume crops are highly nutritious and possess therapeutic properties, while also being able to grow well in extreme environmental conditions.
The review explores alternative protein sources such as underutilized legume crops, aquatic weeds, fungi, and insects, including their production, incorporation in food products, and functional characteristics as novel foods.
Safety is of paramount importance when considering the consumption of insects and underutilized legumes, as they may contain anti-nutritional factors and allergenic proteins.
The review highlights the functional and biological activities of protein hydrolysates from various sources, including bioactive peptides with antihypertensive, antioxidant, antidiabetic, and antimicrobial properties.

Questions Answered

What are the nutritional benefits of insect proteins compared to traditional animal-based proteins?

Insects are a rich source of micronutrients and proteins, with an average protein content of 40% (ranging from 20% to over 70% depending on the species). They are particularly high in essential amino acids like threonine and lysine, which are important for human diets. Insect proteins are more digestible than plant proteins but less digestible than animal proteins. Additionally, insect proteins have excellent oil and water retention capacity, emulsion activity, and foaming activity, making them suitable for a wide range of food applications.

How does the cultivation of fungi on agro-industrial wastes affect the protein content?

Cultivating fungi on agro-industrial wastes can significantly increase their protein content. Edible fungi typically contain 19% to 45% protein, depending on various factors. However, when grown on agro-industrial wastes like corn stover or paddy straw, the protein content can exceed 45%. This makes fungal proteins a valuable source for fortifying and substituting animal-based proteins in food.

What are some of the bioactive properties of non-meat proteins and how are they released during food processing?

Non-meat proteins contain bioactive peptides (BAPs) with various health-promoting properties. BAPs can exhibit antioxidant, ACE inhibitory, antimicrobial, antiviral, and cytomodulatory activities. They are released from non-meat proteins during digestion, fermentation, germination, enzymatic hydrolysis, and food processing. The specific amino acid sequence of the peptide influences its biological activity.

Introduction

In recent years, the world has faced an increasing global population and the depletion of natural resources, with estimates projecting that we'll reach 9-10 billion people by 2050 .

This surge in population has led to a growing demand for sustainable and nutritious food options.

However, conventional food systems have contributed significantly to environmental problems like greenhouse gas emissions, deforestation, and excessive water usage .

Notably, meat production has a substantial impact on these issues .

As a result, there is an urgent need to find alternative sources of high-quality protein.

For a long time, plant-based proteins were considered nutritionally inferior to meat proteins, but this perception is changing .

It's challenging to directly compare plant and meat proteins because plant proteins come with additional plant-based nutrients.

Nonetheless, a product with over 30% protein content (dry matter) and low-fat content is considered an excellent meat substitute .

It's also important to ensure that these substitutes are comparable to meat in terms of protein digestibility-corrected amino acid score (PDCAAS) .

Proteins serve various technological functions in food products, depending on their origin and concentration.

Many proteins, such as pea protein isolate, soy protein isolate, and wheat gluten blends, are used to create meat alternatives due to their water-binding capacity .

Gluten proteins, including glutenins and gliadins, give meat alternatives their chewiness and structure .

Seitan, a pure gluten product, is popular in vegetarian and vegan diets and can be found in various forms like burgers, sausages, and nuggets.

Tofu, produced from soybean proteins coagulated with calcium ions, is a versatile dairy alternative.

However, gluten can be problematic for allergic individuals and those with celiac disease, and soy proteins can impart a bitter taste to food products, limiting their acceptability.

This has prompted the exploration of novel protein sources, such as fungi-based meat alternatives that closely resemble meat and have a minimal environmental impact .

Edible fungi proteins are also gaining attention for their nutritional benefits .

Insect proteins are another option due to their good oil and water retention capacity, as well as emulsion and foaming properties .

Legume-derived proteins, known for their gel-forming abilities, are essential for creating emulsion-type alternative protein products .

Plant-based products like vegetables and pulses have gained popularity as excellent sources of proteins and phytochemicals that may help prevent various diseases .

Additionally, the reintroduction of underutilized crops, which are rich in nutrients and can thrive in harsh environmental conditions, has been proposed as a strategy to improve global food security and combat climate change .

Leaves, both terrestrial and aquatic, are also valuable sources of plant proteins and are being considered for use in meat alternatives.

Aquatic plants like duckweed, with their high protein content, are attracting attention as alternative protein sources for human nutrition.

Insects have long been a food source for over 2 billion people globally, with more than 2000 edible species known .

Due to their high protein content and nutritional value, edible insects, especially crickets, are emerging as a solution to the growing global demand for protein .

Although insect consumption is common in Eastern countries, Western markets are gradually adopting this new eating habit due to its sustainability advantages.

In fact, the European Union recently permitted the sale of the domestic cricket (Acheta domesticus) in partially defatted powder form as a novel food , following previous approvals for yellow mealworm and migratory locust .

Insects offer not only high protein content but also essential micronutrients like potassium, calcium, iron, magnesium, and selenium .

In many cases, they surpass both plant and meat proteins in terms of nutritional value, essential amino acid composition, and protein efficiency .

Additionally, the production of insect-based protein requires significantly less water compared to beef, making it a sustainable alternative .

Insects also have great potential for producing bioactive peptides, which have demonstrated various health benefits, including antihypertensive, antioxidant, antidiabetic, and antimicrobial effects .

Biotechnology holds promise for mass-producing these insect bioactive peptides, although there is a risk of allergic reactions in sensitive individuals due to cross-allergenic reactions with crustacean and house dust mite proteins .

The Promise of Uncommon Beans

Grass Pea: alternative high protein sources

Grass pea, a member of the Fabaceae family, has a global presence, cultivated across South and Southeast Asia, the Middle East, Eastern Europe, North America, South America, and East Africa .

Its seeds, used as pulses, find their way into various savory and sweet dishes, as well as snacks.

What sets grass pea apart is its protein content, ranging from 8.6% to 34.6%, surpassing the protein content of chickpeas, field peas, and French beans .

Furthermore, it's rich in lysine, an essential amino acid, and uniquely contains l-homoarginine, known for its cardiovascular benefits, making grass pea a potential "functional food" .

Besides its nutritional value, grass pea is also a source of phenolics.

However, it's essential to note that overconsumption can be detrimental due to the presence of β-N-oxalyl-l-α, β- diaminopropionic acid (β-ODAP), which can lead to neurolathyrism, a neurodegenerative disease.

Boiling can reduce β-ODAP concentration significantly, and breeding programs aim to develop low-β-ODAP varieties .

From an agricultural perspective, grass pea is robust and resilient, thriving in harsh environmental conditions such as drought, heat, floods, and poor soil quality, making it a sustainable choice for cultivation .

While it holds promise as a functional food, its use in food formulation remains somewhat limited, partly due to its anti-nutritional factors .

Lupin: A Versatile Nutritional Dynamo

Lupin, a large genus comprising around 200 species, boasts four cultivated varieties: L. angustifolius (narrow-leafed), L. albus (white), L. luteus (yellow), and L. mutabilis (Andean).

Australia leads in lupin production, followed by Poland, Russia, Morocco, and Germany.

Lupin's nutritional profile is impressive.

It contains roughly 40% protein, lower fat content (~6%), and a host of essential amino acids.

Additionally, it's rich in dietary minerals and dietary fiber, making it an economical alternative to other legumes like soybean .

What sets lupin apart are its phytochemicals, including bioactive peptides, alkaloids, polyphenols, phytosterols, and tocopherols.

These compounds make lupin flour a valuable ingredient, especially in bakery products.

Beyond nutrition, lupin's high fiber content and antioxidant, antihyperlipidemic, and anti-inflammatory properties make it beneficial against chronic diseases .

In contrast to some other legumes, lupin has found its way into various novel foods, including cheese analogues, gluten-free pasta, cookies, and cakes, enhancing their nutritional value .

Winged Bean: The Multipurpose Marvel

Winged bean (P. tetragonolobus), often found in humid countries like Sri Lanka and Malaysia, is a versatile legume.

It contributes to soil fertility by fixing atmospheric nitrogen, benefiting the growth of other crops like rice.

Although its large-scale cultivation is limited due to variability and low yields, its potential is undeniable.

From an agricultural standpoint, winged bean requires minimal external inputs, making it suitable for regions facing water scarcity and rising temperatures due to climate change.

Nutritionally, it rivals soybean in protein content while maintaining a balanced amino acid profile, including lysine, often lacking in cereal-based diets.

Rich in minerals and unsaturated oils, particularly Vitamin E, winged bean seeds offer a plethora of nutrients .

Moreover, every part of the plant (except the stems) is edible, palatable, and nutritious .

Despite its nutritional value and potential to thrive in harsh environmental conditions, winged bean's incorporation into food formulation remains limited, with only a few studies exploring its use .

Bambara Groundnut: A Protein-Rich Marvel

Bambara groundnut (V. subterrenea), an underutilized legume, boasts protein content comparable to soybean.

Indigenous to Africa, it ranks as the third most important leguminous crop after cowpea and peanut .

With 63% carbohydrates, 22% protein, and 6.6% fat, bambara groundnut seeds provide substantial energy and nutrition.

They're rich in fiber, calcium, iron, and potassium, making them a valuable dietary choice, particularly the red-seeded varieties with higher iron content .

This legume has been proposed as an ingredient to enhance foods for infant weaning in regions combating protein-to-energy malnutrition .

Moreover, bambara groundnut has been used to create high-protein snack products, breakfast cereals, pasta, and traditional foods, improving dietary diversity and nutritional value .

Its starch and amylose content, along with dietary fiber, position bambara groundnut as a suitable choice for managing diabetes and high cholesterol.

Resilient to environmental stressors, it holds potential for contributing to food and nutritional security, both regionally and globally .

Mushrooms: More Than Just a Pizza Topping

In the pursuit of sustainable protein sources, edible fungi are emerging as nutritional powerhouses that warrant our attention.

These remarkable organisms, including popular species like Agaricus bisporus (button mushroom), Lentinula edodes (shiitake), Pleurotus spp., and Flammulina velutipes, offer a promising solution to our growing demand for sustainable proteins .

Edible Fungi: A Protein-Rich Option

Edible fungi vary widely in their protein content, ranging from 19% to 45% of dry matter.

This variability depends on factors such as the species, maturity stage, fungal parts used, substrate, and cultivation techniques employed .

Researchers are exploring biotechnological approaches, like bio-refinery and solid-state fermentation, to harness fungal proteins in a circular bio-based economy .

These techniques leverage native strains or specially engineered fungal hosts that excel in post-translational processing, making them superior to bacterial or yeast hosts .

Furthermore, cultivating fungi on agro-industrial waste substrates can boost the protein content, exceeding 45% of dry matter .

Mycoprotein: The Fungal Protein Marvel

One standout product in the world of fungal proteins is mycoprotein, derived from Fusarium venenatum.

It has received approval from the UK Government for sale since the 1990s and is globally exported under the brand name Quorn™ .

Mycoprotein is a dried fungal powder renowned for its high nutritional value and is frequently used to fortify various foods.

As a substitute for animal-based proteins, mycoprotein has gained traction for its nutritional benefits and safety.

Extensive toxicology studies have confirmed its safety for human and animal consumption .

Amino Acid Richness and Nutritional Value

Edible fungi, particularly Pleurotus spp., boast an impressive amino acid profile, including all essential amino acids, with leucine, aspartic acid, phenylalanine, and lysine as the most abundant.

Umami amino acids, along with non-essential ones like gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and ornithine, are also present .

A study on human volunteers demonstrated that mycoprotein's biological value matches that of milk proteins .

The protein-to-energy ratio (PER) for various edible mushrooms, ranging from 16% to 37% protein content, is comparable to foods like beef jerky, whole milk, and lentils .

Consuming 100 grams of dried mushrooms can cover a significant portion of the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for both men and women .

Nutritional and Health Benefits

Beyond their nutritional value, proteins derived from edible fungi exhibit remarkable biological activities that can enhance health and prevent diseases.

These activities include lectins, fungal immunomodulatory proteins (FIP), ribosome-inactivating proteins (RIP), antimicrobial or antifungal proteins, ribonucleases, laccases, and bioactive peptides .

Recent epidemiological research even associates higher mycoprotein intake with improved glycaemia markers, enhanced fiber intake, and overall diet quality .

Versatile Applications and Advancements

Mycoproteins find their way into a wide range of food products, including baked goods, meat products, and dairy items .

They not only enhance nutritional profiles but also improve physicochemical and organoleptic characteristics.

For instance, the addition of recombinant Ery4 laccase from P. eryngii to a dairy product not only increased its antioxidant properties and texture but also raised protein content, resulting in a 10% higher product yield compared to control samples .

This protein also exhibited the potential to degrade mycotoxins, elevating food safety standards .

Green Protein

Plant Proteins: Abundance in Leaves

Leaves, often overlooked, are a promising reservoir of plant proteins, with over 70% of their protein content residing in the chloroplast.

Here, the dominant protein is ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase (RuBisCO), an enzyme crucial for photosynthesis .

However, the protein content in leaves fluctuates during development, gradually breaking down into free amino acids as senescence sets in .

Among these green gems, Moringa oleifera, the drumstick tree, and Wolffia arrhiza and Wolffia globosa, commonly known as duckweed, stand out as fully edible plants boasting high protein content.

While leaves hold the promise of plant proteins, they come with challenges.

Nutrient bio-accessibility in vegetable foods, particularly proteins, is hindered by compounds like cellulose, hemicellulose, polyphenols, and anti-nutritional factors such as protease and α-amylase inhibitors.

These substances interfere with both food proteins and digestive enzymes .

One approach to overcoming these challenges is protein isolation from vegetable matrices, which enhances digestibility by eliminating fibers .

However, when applied to leaf powder, traditional methods like two-step alkaline extraction and isoelectric precipitation face hurdles due to the low solubility of membrane proteins compared to seed storage proteins.

Moringa oleifera: A Nutritional Powerhouse

Moringa oleifera, a perennial plant thriving in tropical and subtropical regions, offers a multifaceted nutritional profile.

It encompasses various edible parts, including leaves, roots, seeds, bark, fruit, flowers, and immature pods, with leaves being particularly rich in proteins, vitamins, and minerals.

These leaves play a vital role in the diets of pregnant women and weaning children, with scientifically proven health benefits .

Researchers have delved into the nutritional and food applications of Moringa oleifera seeds and leaves .

Efforts to extract proteins from Moringa leaf powder using cellulolytic enzymes have led to the creation of high protein concentrates (55.7%, w/w), surpassing what can be achieved with alkaline extraction alone .

This concentration process substantially enhances in vitro digestibility, with a digestibility score of 99.9% and PDCASS 91.42%, comparable to whey proteins and aligned with FAO requirements .

Another avenue to improve leaf digestibility is fermentation, as demonstrated by solid-state fermentation of drumstick leaf flour using microorganisms like Aspergillus niger, Candida utilis, and Bacillus subtilis.

This process yields high-quality proteins, increased concentrations of small peptides and amino acids, and reduced levels of anti-nutritional factors .

Moringa's potential as a valuable ingredient extends to a range of food products, including baked goods, meat products, and more.

However, the exploration of Moringa's bioaccessibility and bioavailability in meat product formulations remains an evolving research area .

Duckweed: The Aquatic Protein Gem

While Moringa thrives on land, duckweed takes center stage in aquatic ecosystems.

This monocotyledonous plant, found in various genera, boasts an impressive protein content of up to 43% on a dry basis, featuring all essential amino acids .

Duckweed's potential as a food ingredient has garnered attention, with assessments conducted by EFSA, considering both its powdered and fresh forms .

Protein isolates from duckweed have shown promise, with preparations reaching 67.2% protein concentration (w/w).

These isolates exhibit good solubility at pH levels above 6 and gel strength comparable to soy proteins, although slightly lower than egg white proteins at pH 4 to 7 .

Duckweed's nutrient content and metabolite composition have made it an appealing choice for the animal feed industry, but its potential as a plant-based ingredient in food products is relatively unexplored .

Microalgae: Underwater Protein Marvels

Microalgae, aquatic plants residing beneath the surface, have emerged as protein-rich food ingredients, boasting protein content ranging from 40% to 70%, depending on the species.

They also offer polyunsaturated fatty acids, minerals, and vitamins .

Notably, microalgae synthesize RuBisCO, albeit in lower quantities compared to terrestrial and shallow aquatic plants like duckweed .

Their essential amino acid profiles align with those of soybean and egg proteins .

Two microalgae species, Chlorella vulgaris and Arthrospira platensis (Spirulina), have taken the spotlight as potential novel food ingredients.

Chlorella sp. falls outside the scope of EU novel food regulations, while Spirulina sp. requires dedicated safety and nutritional assessments .

Researchers are actively exploring methods to enhance production yields through breeding, strain selection, and genetic engineering .

One challenge associated with whole microalgae biomass is its distinct "grassy-fishy" flavor and color.

Efforts have led to the development of chlorophyll-free strains and chemically induced random mutagenesis, yielding honey/yellow and white Chlorella powders with high protein content (40–50%) and essential fatty acids .

However, the presence of cellular walls, constituting 10% of dry weight, hampers protein digestibility.

Digestibility rates vary by species, with A. platensis boasting higher rates (up to 78%) due to its peptidoglycan-rich cell wall .

Microalgae protein extracts are employed to complement formulations for meat analogues, offering excellent emulsifying and foaming properties.

These properties exhibit reduced dependence on pH and superior interfacial stabilization compared to animal proteins .

Bugs as Bites

Insects are emerging as an unexpected yet highly nutritious solution to the quest for alternative high protein sources.

With an average protein content of 40%, ranging from 20% to over 70% depending on the species, insects offer a promising option .

Surprisingly, these six-legged critters are already a common food source for 2 billion people in 119 countries worldwide.

While over 2000 insect species are edible, the most popular choices for protein include Coleoptera Beetles, Lepidoptera Caterpillars, Hemynoptera (wasps, bees), and ants.

While insects have long been a staple in the diets of Asian populations, particularly in India, China, Thailand, South Korea, Japan, Mexico, Brazil, and various parts of Africa, they remain novel foods in Western countries .

However, the landscape is changing rapidly.

The need for sustainable protein sources, coupled with the enticing advantages of insect farming, is transforming Western eating habits and European markets.

In Europe, three insect species, namely Tenebrio molitor, Gryllodes sigillatus, and Schisocerca gregaria, stand out as potential food sources due to their high protein content, estimated at 52%, 70%, and 76%, respectively .

It's worth noting that the protein content can sometimes be overstated due to the presence of non-protein nitrogen .

Insects boast high threonine and lysine levels, though they may have lower methionine or tryptophan content.

Nevertheless, their essential amino acid profile ranges from 46% to 96%, surpassing the lowest recommended levels for human diets (>40%).

Insects often outshine plants and animals in terms of amino acid quantity .

Insect proteins also offer better digestibility than plant proteins but are slightly less digestible than animal proteins .

They exhibit a low solubility ranging from 3% to 45%, which can be improved through enzymatic hydrolysis .

Therefore, insect proteins find their best use in foods that don't require high solubility, such as meat analogs.

Additionally, insect proteins excel in oil and water retention, emulsion activity, and foaming activity.

Notably, edible grasshoppers (S. gregaria) and honeybees (Apis mellifera) have remarkable emulsifying properties akin to whey protein, positioning them as alternative emulsifiers .

Nevertheless, the functional characteristics of insect proteins can vary greatly depending on the species.

For example, protein extracts from Hermetia illucens and certain other insect species have poor solubility in aqueous media, which may affect their nutritional value and functional properties .

On the other hand, proteins from species like Protaetia brevitarsis and Allo-Myrina dichotoma exhibit superior protein thermal stability and emulsification activity compared to T. molitor, making them more suitable for various applications .

Insects present innovative opportunities to enhance their functional characteristics through processes like ultrasound, ultra-high pressure treatment, pH-shifting technology, and cold atmospheric pressure plasma processing .

It's important to note that insects are considered novel foods in European countries, and specific regulations govern their production, transportation, storage, and commercialization, whether for animal feed or human consumption.

In recent years, several European directives and regulations have been established to regulate the production and commercialization of these novel foods.

One notable development is the authorization of insect-processed animal proteins in formulated pig and poultry feeds .

The International Platform of Insects for Food and Feed (IPIFF), which represents stakeholders involved in insect production for food and feed, actively encourages European member states to adopt these regulations, supported by a favorable opinion from the EFSA Panel on Nutrition, Novel Foods, and Food Allergens (NDA) .

This has paved the way for the commercialization of various insect species as novel foods, with specific formulations and food categories approved for use .

It's essential to highlight that in the case of house cricket, EFSA has noted potential allergenicity concerns, emphasizing the importance of safety assessments .

In response to modern sedentary lifestyles and the demand for healthier diets, innovative functional products are emerging.

Bread, a dietary staple worldwide, is ripe for enhancement due to its protein deficiency in essential amino acids like lysine and threonine .

Additives such as insect flour, rich in protein, are finding their way into various bread formulations, boosting their nutritional value and quality.

This innovative approach has been applied to sourdough, resulting in health-promoting molecules like arachidonic acid and linolenic acid, offering unique benefits .

Fortification of wheat bread with various edible insect flours, including mealworm, buffalo worm, cricket, and larvae of the black soldier fly, has improved the bread's biological value due to their high protein content .

Cricket powder has been employed to increase protein content in muffins, and gluten-free bread enriched with cricket powder has shown promise, with high nutritional value proteins and improved texture .

The applications of edible insects are expanding, with over 160 patents and numerous articles exploring their use in various food products .

Beyond Nutrition

Biologically active peptides (BAPs) are an exciting frontier in the quest for alternative high protein sources, offering numerous health benefits.

These peptides, with a molecular weight below 6 kDa and containing 3 to 20 amino acid residues, remain inactive within the parent protein until they are released and transported to their active sites .

The structure and activity of BAPs are closely linked, with their amino acid sequences playing a crucial role.

Amino acids like alanine, cysteine, histidine, lysine, leucine, methionine, proline, valine, tryptophan, and tyrosine contribute to their antioxidant properties .

Additionally, Pro, Lys, or aromatic amino acids contribute to their ability to inhibit Angiotensin Converting Enzyme (ACE) .

BAPs can be released from food proteins through various processes, including gastrointestinal digestion, fermentation, germination, enzymatic hydrolysis, and food processing.

Innovative technologies like high pressure, microwave, and pulsed electric field methods have emerged to improve these processes .

The versatility of BAPs extends to a wide range of activities, impacting various bodily systems.

In the gastrointestinal system, they can act as anti-obesity and satiety peptides.

In the cardiovascular system, they may have positive effects, while in the immune system, they exhibit antimicrobial, antibiofilm, antiviral, and cytomodulatory properties .

Some BAPs even influence the nervous system, acting as opioid peptides.

Although many BAPs have been derived from animal proteins, alternative sources are being explored to discover novel sequences.

However, identifying these bioactive sequences remains a challenge due to the lack of a tailored pipeline for isolation and mass spectrometry mapping.

In contrast, protein hydrolysates are often mapped through mass spectrometry, with bioactivity predictions made via bioinformatics without in vitro validation.

Table 3 provides a list of active peptides from alternative sources, although it's worth noting that these sequences represent the only identified ones so far, mainly due to studies focusing on protein hydrolysates and their partially purified fractions.

Proteins and peptides derived from major legume species, such as soybean, cowpea, groundnut, common beans, pea, and chickpea, exhibit a wide spectrum of biological activities, ranging from nutraceutical to therapeutic potential.

These peptides can be produced through in vitro hydrolysis using food-grade enzymes like alcalase or through various processes such as fruit ripening, fermentation (for products like soy sauce, tempe, and natto), and germination (for sprout production) .

Minor legume proteins, except lupin, remain uncharted territory for peptide exploration.

Lupin-derived peptides, for instance, display opioid and immune-modulating effects, as well as potential antidiabetic properties .

Enzymatic hydrolysis with papain has proven highly efficient in producing ACE-inhibitory and antioxidant-rich winged bean seed hydrolysates.

These peptides have demonstrated their effectiveness in reducing blood pressure in rat models, underscoring their potential as functional food ingredients .

Similar beneficial effects have been observed with Bambara groundnut protein hydrolysates and their peptide fractions .

Bambara bean-derived BAPs have also exhibited antihyperglycemic and cardio-protective properties, along with resistance to simulated gastrointestinal digestion .

While grass pea-derived peptides remain relatively unexplored, their potential bioactivity is of interest.

Proteins and peptides with biological activity from edible fungi are gaining attention, with various reported benefits .

Efficient and sustainable production of these proteins and peptides represents a current challenge.

Moringa oleifera seed or leaves protein hydrolysates have displayed antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, hypoglycemic, antimicrobial, antihypertensive, and hyperuricemia-regulating properties, opening up opportunities for functional food development .

Microalgae are another intriguing source of bioactive peptides.

They have shown potential in preventing cardiovascular diseases and cancer, although the number of reported bioactive peptide sequences remains limited .

Techniques such as enzymatic digestion followed by membrane filtration and chromatographic purification are commonly used to generate these peptides .

Some microalgae peptides have also demonstrated anti-cancer and immunomodulating activities .

Insect proteins, like silkworm pupa, have been associated with a reduced risk of various diseases, including cardiovascular diseases and cancer .

Silkworm pupa hydrolysates have shown bioactive properties such as ACE inhibition, antioxidant activity, immunomodulation, and potential to alleviate hypercholesterolemia .

These hydrolysates may also possess antitumor activity, although further research is needed to confirm these findings.

Techniques like ultrasound have been employed to assist enzymatic hydrolysis and enhance the production of bioactive compounds .

One of the early and extensively studied insect peptide hydrolysates is derived from the proteins of Bombyx mori, with ACE-inhibitory properties being the predominant bioactivity observed.

Similar bioactive peptide sequences have been identified in other insects such as cricket (Gryllodes sigillatus), mealworm (T. molitor), and locust (Schistocerca gregaria) .

Safety First

Minor Legumes and Their Neurotoxic Compounds

While minor legume crops offer excellent nutritional value, some pose potential health risks due to inherent toxicity.

Take grass pea, for example, which contains a neurotoxic non-protein amino acid called β-N-oxalyl-L-a, b-diaminopropionic acid (β-ODAP) in its seeds.

Overconsumption of these seeds, as a staple in an unbalanced diet for 3–4 months, can lead to neurolathyrism.

Symptoms include leg muscle paralysis, muscular rigidity, and weakness in both humans and domestic animals.

The β-ODAP content varies widely in grass pea seeds, ranging from 0.02% to 2.59%, influenced by environmental factors and cultivated varieties .

Efforts have been made to develop grass pea varieties with low β-ODAP content.

While some lines have achieved <0.1% toxin content, further research on their performance in the field under different environmental conditions is necessary .

Detoxification methods like soaking and boiling have proven effective, reducing ODAP content by up to 67% .

Grass pea allergens are relatively understudied, but cross-reactivity with peanut allergens has been reported, making this an area of concern .

Lupine, another legume, can cause severe intoxications when consumed excessively.

This safety issue primarily arises from the high content of quinolizidine alkaloids in bitter lupine species, ranging from 1% to 3% of the dry weight of their seeds.

Lupanine, a quinolizidine alkaloid, is the major component, and its high content has been associated with severe intoxication .

Traditional soaking and cooking practices have been used to reduce alkaloid content, with health authorities setting maximum limits below 200 mg/kg to protect consumers .

Breeding programs have also focused on developing low-alkaloid "cultivated sweet" lupine varieties, with alkaloid content ranging from 0.3% to 0.5% depending on species and geography .

Lupine allergenicity varies by region, with higher prevalence in areas where it is consumed more frequently, such as Mediterranean countries and Australia.

Cross-reactivity with peanut and other legumes has been recorded, leading to its inclusion among priority allergens in European legislation .

Lupine allergens include globulins, 2S albumins, and other fractions like pathogenesis-related proteins and nonspecific lipid transfer proteins .

Processing methods such as enzymatic hydrolysis and thermal treatments have shown promise in reducing lupine allergenicity .

Challenges with Winged Bean and Bambara Groundnut

Winged bean and Bambara groundnut are rich in anti-nutritional factors (ANFs) that can limit their consumption.

Tannins, lectins, flatulence factors, phytoglutenins, saponins, and cyanogenic glycosides in winged bean, as well as phytates and tannins in Bambara groundnut, reduce the bioavailability of nutrients and minerals by forming complexes during digestion.

These substances can also inhibit enzyme activity and affect food protein quality .

However, various processing methods, such as autoclaving, boiling, and soaking, have been developed to safely eliminate these ANFs while preserving nutritional composition .

Safety Concerns with Mycoproteins and Microalgae

Mycoproteins, like those found in QuornTM-based foods, may trigger allergic reactions in individuals with mold allergies due to the presence of the acidic ribosomal protein P2 .

While microalgae are nutritionally valuable, they can carry heavy metals and toxins, particularly when sourced from contaminated environments.

Some food supplements derived from Spirulina spp. and Chlorella spp. have contained cadmium and mercury due to a lack of quality control measures .

Toxins in microalgal dietary supplements may result from direct toxin production by microalgae or cross-contamination with toxin-producing cyanobacteria .

Pathogenic microorganisms and IgE cross-reactivity also pose safety issues with microalgal food products.

Safety of Insect-Based Proteins

Using insects as food ingredients introduces biological, chemical, and allergenic risks.

Hot slaughtering and cooking can help mitigate microbiological risks, while chemical contamination concerns focus on heavy metals and environmental pollutants like hormones and pesticides .

Allergenicity arises from proteins like tropomyosin and arginine kinase found in various insects, which can trigger severe allergic reactions and cross-react with crustacean and dust mite proteins .

Silkworms, in particular, contain allergens in different growth stages and metabolites, with 45 potential allergens identified .

Cross-allergic reactions may occur due to phylogenetic similarities between arthropods and crustaceans, making it essential to label food containing insects properly to protect allergic consumers .

Ensuring food safety, especially for novel foods like alternative protein sources, is critical.

Proper labeling, along with digital tools and e-commerce platforms offering information on safety and functional properties, can safeguard consumers' health, especially vulnerable populations .

Looking Ahead

The search for alternative protein sources beyond meat has surged, driven by health benefits and sustainability.

Algae, insects, fungi, and underutilized crops offer eco-friendly options.

Legumes like grass pea, lupine, winged bean, and Bambara groundnut shine for their hardiness and rich seeds.

Edible mushrooms are protein-packed with vitamins and low in fat.

Aquatic plants and microalgae are nutrient-rich ingredients on the rise.

Insects, with over 2000 edible species, lead in protein and micronutrients.

As plant-based protein demand grows, driven by health and bioactive compounds, vegetarian and vegan diets are on the rise.

Safety concerns call for protein quality reevaluation as dietary trends shift toward novel proteins.

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How we reviewed this article:

Latest on:

Key Factors in Probiotic Benefits for Men

5 Innovative Alternative High Protein Sources Revealed

Main Findings

Questions Answered

Introduction

The Promise of Uncommon Beans

Grass Pea: alternative high protein sources

Lupin: A Versatile Nutritional Dynamo

Winged Bean: The Multipurpose Marvel

Bambara Groundnut: A Protein-Rich Marvel

Mushrooms: More Than Just a Pizza Topping

Edible Fungi: A Protein-Rich Option

Mycoprotein: The Fungal Protein Marvel

Amino Acid Richness and Nutritional Value

Nutritional and Health Benefits

Versatile Applications and Advancements

Green Protein

Plant Proteins: Abundance in Leaves

Moringa oleifera: A Nutritional Powerhouse

Duckweed: The Aquatic Protein Gem

Microalgae: Underwater Protein Marvels

Bugs as Bites

Beyond Nutrition

Safety First

Minor Legumes and Their Neurotoxic Compounds

Challenges with Winged Bean and Bambara Groundnut

Safety Concerns with Mycoproteins and Microalgae

Safety of Insect-Based Proteins

Looking Ahead

Was this article helpful?

How we reviewed this article:

Latest on:

Key Factors in Probiotic Benefits for Men: 5 Crucial Insights

8 Essentials in Probiotics for Men’s Digestive Health

Personalized Probiotics for Gut Health: 9 Essential Facts

Trending on:

Digestive Relief Stack

Energy from the Inside Out

Gut-Calm Kit

5 Innovative Alternative High Protein Sources Revealed

Main Findings

Questions Answered

Introduction

The Promise of Uncommon Beans

Grass Pea: alternative high protein sources

Lupin: A Versatile Nutritional Dynamo

Winged Bean: The Multipurpose Marvel

Bambara Groundnut: A Protein-Rich Marvel

Mushrooms: More Than Just a Pizza Topping

Edible Fungi: A Protein-Rich Option

Mycoprotein: The Fungal Protein Marvel

Amino Acid Richness and Nutritional Value

Nutritional and Health Benefits

Versatile Applications and Advancements

Green Protein

Plant Proteins: Abundance in Leaves

Moringa oleifera: A Nutritional Powerhouse

Duckweed: The Aquatic Protein Gem

Microalgae: Underwater Protein Marvels

Bugs as Bites

Beyond Nutrition

Safety First

Minor Legumes and Their Neurotoxic Compounds

Challenges with Winged Bean and Bambara Groundnut

Safety Concerns with Mycoproteins and Microalgae

Safety of Insect-Based Proteins

Looking Ahead

Was this article helpful?

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How we reviewed this article:

Latest on:

Key Factors in Probiotic Benefits for Men: 5 Crucial Insights

8 Essentials in Probiotics for Men’s Digestive Health

Personalized Probiotics for Gut Health: 9 Essential Facts

Trending on:

Digestive Relief Stack

Energy from the Inside Out

Gut-Calm Kit